Power Line Communication Essay

The objective any mining company like TATA STEEL is to reduce the amount of energy used in mining through the increase in employee productivity and safety. Mining operations consist of several tasks. The highest efficiency can only be achieved with full coordination among the persons carrying out these tasks and if the locations of vehicles and people are known by those who coordinate the activities. In addition, the large number of risks of explosion has the potential to cause a major accident. Therefore, the establishment of a better communication system for the mine underground is very important and significant to modernize the mine management, increase the labour productivity, and strengthen the security to protect the lives and property of the mines. Present Scenario At present, cable telephone communication, power line communication, sensor communication, telecommunication, leakage communication, and radio communication are the main forms of communication in a mine. Our study shows that, a variety of mobile communication methods have their limitary application under coal mine. Some mines still use hardwired wall-mounted telephones. The disadvantage of this technology is the obvious necessity that the user cannot be mobile. To reach this person, the caller must page the person who must then go to a wall-mounted telephone that may be a long distance away and in the case of an accident the telephone may be inaccessible to the injured person. Another popular technology , Leaky Feeder technology requires a relatively stiff,hard-to-install cable, about 5/8† in diameter, to be installed everywhere where communication is desired. To communicate the user must be in line-of-sight of the cable and not more than thirty or eighty feet away from the cable. According to a survey conducted on how well current systems meet the needs for mining communication, 62 percent of Respondents replied negatively. None of them thought that mining communication needs were being met extremely well. Some of their replies- â€Å"Overall we cannot communicate well with miners.† â€Å"There is the issue of battery, phone and wiring maintenance.† â€Å"Safety in an emergency is still an issue.† As the power lines in an underground mine cover a broad area, if we can make full use of power lines to communicate, then we can completely solve the problem underground communication. The use of power lines saves the cost of additional cable and the labour cost for system installation. Furthermore, power lines are built and installed in a rugged manner. Any underground wire or cable, when fed an RF signal, tends to distribute that signal throughout its length. Carrier current systems utilize this fact to establish communication paths using existing mine wiring. Carrier current devices are basically FM radio transceivers that transmit and receive over existing mine wiring instead of using an antenna system. The LF (low-frequency) and MF (medium frequency)KP ranges propagate best in carrier current systems. A common example of a carrier current system is the trolley carrier phone systems presently used in many mines. Another example is the shaft communication systems that utilize the hoist rope itself to establish communications to and from the cage. The most modern system, based on MF, promises to be the most effective of a l l . But there are lots of complex interference noises in power line communication under mine. More recently, the maturity of wireless as an accepted medium has increased the demand for instant, reliable, portable communication. Underground mines, however, have proved resistant to wireless communication due to environmental conditions that limit the transmission of radio waves. â€Å"Mines are looking to find such a system. It would become universal over time due to safety, a decrease in down time and an increase in productivity.† This system may be further enhanced to A GPS-like (Global Positioning System) for underground mines which would serve an extremely useful function in saving energy in mining operations. Autonomous (i.e. unmanned) machinery has been a long-standing objective of the mining. This would move miners from underground mines to the surface from where they would remotely control mining operations. Extremely important is to note that such a move would allow shutting off the energy-guzzling fans, which would result in large amounts of energy savings. Economics PLC is viewed as especially attractive because of several characteristics. Electricity services in most developing countries have higher reach than telephony. In addition, PLC can provide an elegant solution for in-home access and networking, since the signal can reach virtually any outlet in the home. However, there are several important technical issues in this simple scheme. The signal attenuates as it goes over the line, with higher losses at higher frequencies. Given emission limits that restrict boosting the transmission signal, the only solution is the use of repeaters en-route, increasing the cost. Secondly, the LV transformers act as a low-pass filter, allowing electricity through with low losses but not higher frequencies. This is why most solutions rely on bypassing the distribution transformer. While an opportunity in terms of sharing capital equipment costs across users, shared infrastructures also lead to congestion, multiplexing, interference, and security concerns. To overcome these issues, PLC solutions rely on sophisticated signal processing and encoding. For PLC to be successful, it must not only operate successfully from a technology point of view, but also present a viable business case. The market space consists of not only well-entrenched alternatives like DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) and cable, but also alternatives such as Fibre-To-The-Home (FTTH), Fiber-To-The-Curb (FTTC), and broadband wireless. Issues of telecom, regulation and competition play a vital role in deciding the future of PLC. Depending on the number of feeders emanating from the substation, different MV couplers are needed. At every distribution transformer, a concentrator cum transformer bypass is required. This device transfers the signals to the medium-voltage line, bypassing the transformer. In addition, depending on the distances involved, repeaters might be needed to extend the signal. In addition to the one-time costs, which are amortized over specific periods, there are also explicit calculations of monthly operating costs. After thorough estimation from various sources (web and consulting some industry people) the monthly costs of PLC is found to be around US$35 per month per user. Most of the values chosen are plausible, if not optimistic. In some hazardous locations, where specialized personnel are required, installation costs have been estimated at US$200–300. On the other hand, in normal cases, the installation would be somewhat over US$100 per user . The total capital costs per consumer (excluding Customer Premises Equipment (CPE)) average about US$85 , assuming an average of 6 homes passed per LV transformer. One result that is robust across most assumption ranges is that operating expenditures are about 45% of the total costs. The most important variable, under the assumptions is the time period for paying off of the equipment. Given the fast changing nature of the telecom industry, the median value for economic purposes is assumed to be 5 years. In addition, within a region, the competitive pressures might be much lower, allowing for higher market share and greater sharing of equipment, marketing, and maintenance costs amongst subscribers. Given the estimated monthly costs of PLC it is almost clear that there is a gripping business case for PLC in the near term based on price for the end-user. Of course, economics is not the only factor in determining the success of PLC or any other broadband technology. User satisfaction, customer loyalty, branding, and competition (alternatives) are all important factors as well.

Scarlet Letter Chapter 20-24 Questions and Answers

Chapter 20 â€Å"The Minister in a Maze†1. Where have Hester and Dimmesdale decided to go when they leave Boston ? Why do they choose to go to Europe rather than remain in the New World. He and Hester have decided to go to Europe, since it offers more anonymity and a better environment for Dimmesdale’s fragile health. 2. Why does Dimmesdale consider it fortunate that the ship is not to sail for 4 days? He wants to give his last final and most emotionally powerful sermon on Election Day. 3. Dimmesdale considers the timing of the ship's departure to be â€Å"most fortunate! Why? He was to preach the Election Sermon and he could not have chanced upon a more suitable mode and time of terminating his professional career. 4. How was Dimmesdale's trip return from the forest different that his departing trip through the forest? He has much more energy than when he left only two days earlier, and everything looks different to him. Three times in a row he is approached by various people, and he struggles not to utter blasphemy. He is even tempted to teach dirty words to a group of small Puritan children. 5.Dimmesdale suddenly perceives that everything in the town is now different as he returns to it. What has happened? He has a new perception of life and feels like a new man after his meeting with Hester. 6. Dimmesdale, as he walks through town to reach his dwelling, is suddenly struck by urges to do terrible things. What were the four instances in which he was tempted to do evil? He encounters an elderly woman to whom he nearly blurts out a devastating â€Å"unanswerable argument against the immortality of the human soul,† but something stops him, and the widow totters away satisfied. He next ignores a young woman whom he has recently converted to the church because he fears that his strange state of mind will lead him to plant some corrupting germ in her innocent heart. Passing one of the sailors from the ship on which he plans to escape, Dimmesdale has the impulse to engage with him in a round of oaths. This comes only shortly after an encounter with a group of children, whom the minister nearly teaches some â€Å"wicked words. †7. What is Dimmesdale's voyage through the town like in this chapter?He's full of temptation to corrupt everyone he passes by in town.8. Why did Dimmesdale and Hester decide to leave for England instead of any place else?They had decided that Europe, with its crowds and cities, offered them a better home and hiding pla ce than anywhere in America, with its choice between an Indian dwelling and a few settlements along the coast. Also, with the minister’s gifts, refinement, and his education meant he needed to live in a civilized place, the more civilized, the better.9. What did Mistress Hibbins accuse Dimmesdale of?What was Dimmesdale's response? She accused him of making a visit to the forest. He denies it. 10. Why did Hester and Dimmesdale decide to leave for England instead of somewhere else?~SAME AS QUESTION 8~ Chapter 21 & Chapter 22 â€Å"The New England Holiday † & â€Å" The Procession†1. What have the crowds of people gathered in the market-place to witness?The people are celebrating Election Day and gathered to witness the inauguration of the Governor.2. What piece of unwelcome news does the master of the ship on which, she, Pearl , and Dimmesdale are to sail have for Hester?The piece of unwelcome news, the master of the ship on which Pearl and Dimmesdale are to sail tells Hester is that Chillingworth will be joining them on their passage because the ship needs a doctor and Chillingworth has told the captain that he is a member of Hester's party.3. Where does Hester stand during the procession and during Dimmesdale’s sermon in the church?Hester takes Pearl and goes to stand near the foot of the scaffold in order to listen to Dimmesdale's speech.4. Dimmesdale must cross a swamp to return to the scaffold. What happens in the swamp?He falls inside and almost drowns.6. Why does Pearl say that Dimmesdale is a â€Å"strange, sad man?† Because of the demeanor he possesses and his profile.7. What is the New England holiday?Holiday celebrated with a procession involving the Governor and other very good people and soldiers.8. What did Pearl want from Dimmesdale that Hester would not permit?Pearl questions Dimmesdale's love for Hester and her by asking if he loves them enough to walk back to town with them hand in hand.9. Hester's â€Å"spir it sank with the idea that all must have been a delusion.† What's happening at this point? Chillingworth has ruined her plans with Dimmesdale that she had so been looking forward to. It was obvious that he was aware of their plans and decided to travel with them and follow.10. What news does the shipmaster ask Pearl to tell Hester? Same answer as number 2.11. What did Pearl want from Dimmesdale that Hester would not permit? ~SAME AS QUESTION 8~12. Hester's â€Å"spirit sank with the idea that all must have been a delusion.What's happening at this point?~SAME AS QUESTION 9~ 13. What news does the shipmaster ask Pearl to tell Hester?~SAME AS QUESTION 10 and 2~ Chapter 23 â€Å"The Revelation of the Scarlet Letter†1. Who empowered Dimmesdale to stand on the scaffold? Hester and Perl carry Dimmsdale to go up on the scaffold and he leans heavily upon their shoulders.2. Describe the most significant thing Dimmesdale does in this chapter. He stands on the scaffold with Hester and his daughter, showing everyone his badge of sin .3.What did Pearl do when standing next to her father on the scaffold? Why? Pearl kisses his lips, his confession has created sympathy in her heart, not just for him, but for her mother, as well.4. Describe what happens to Pearl during this final scaffold moment. As her tears fell upon her father's cheek, they were the pledge that she would change from the cold and distant child that she was, transforming the trouble child she once was.5. What does Chillingworth do in response to Dimmesdale's actions at the scaffold? Why?He tries to talk him out of confessing because once Dimmesdale escapes him, he will have nothing to live forward to.Chapter 24 â€Å"Conclusion†1. What does Hawthorne say about what happened at the scaffold at the beginning of this chapter? That there are many versions, according to people, about what happened during Dimmesdale's â€Å"confession. † Some say his sin was eating him from his heart unti l it appeared on his chest. Some blame it on Roger's drugs. Others claim it was as bright as the one on Hester Prynne's chest. While other claim that there was nothing there, and that his death in a sinful woman's arms was just an act of human righteousness.2. What important lesson has Dimmesdale taught the people of the town? Find a quote that supports this. His death was a parable to teach people that we are all sinners in the eyes of God. After exhausting life in his efforts for mankind’s spiritual good, he had made the manner of his death a parable, in order to impress on his admirers the mighty and mournful lesson, that, in the view of Infinite Purity, we are sinners all alike†¦ nd especially a clergyman’s—will sometimes uphold his character; when proofs, clear as the mid-day sunshine on the scarlet letter, establish him a false and sin-stained creature of the dust(pg. 231). †3. Who did Chillingworth leave his property to? He left everything to P earl.4. What do people think the scarlet letter stood for Dimmesdale’s breast?5. What details do we know about Chillingworth after reading this chapter? That he dies a year after Dimmesdale and leaves all his fortune in Pearl's hands.

Advanced Information Security

Viewing Web pages: For the web pages, the imposter could appeal off a phishing attack, tricking users into thinking that they were accessing their bank's Web site, and hence pull off a man-in-the-middle attack and gather login credentials. Moreover, they are accessing some personal data or putting some personal data on some website and hence pull off a man in the middle attack and collect all the personal details of this user. Why, in practice, are server certificates rarely signed: It appears to be too much trouble to distribute the public keys securely for the certificate authorities in advance and store them in the .ssh/authorized_keys directory of the client machines. The user wants to be sure that he or she has logged in to the machine that she is trying to log in to, especially if the authentication method is to send a password.   Otherwise, an attacker could act as a man-in-the-middle. Rule conflicts is a problem in a firewall rule set. Some rules are created for rejecting all the packets from a particular destination. On the other hand, some rules are established to accept all the packets from a particular destination. If reject and accept destination are same then rule conflicts will be Occur. In this case, some rule conflicts are present which is given bellow: Above table shows that rule 2 allow all the packets from the destination IP address and destination port. Rule 3 indicates that all the packets are rejected from a particular destination where the destination of rule 2 and 3 is same. Therefore, a rule conflict occurs. In this case rule, 13 allow all the packets those are using any protocol. But in rule 14 and 15 shows that the packets are rejected those are using TCP and UDP protocol. Therefore, a rule conflict occurs. The FIRST match policy put on the first rule which match the packet. The BEST match policy put on the rule which is more accurate regarding the network. The LAST match policy put on the rule that is first. Mainly it is bottom to top. Proxy Firewall is one type of network security system which protects a network by filtering the packets. This firewall is used in an application layer. The proxy firewall allows all the network traffic by checking their validity. Proxy firewall is placed in the network gateway.   All incoming packets are checked in the proxy server. If the packets are authorized then, proxy firewall grants the access. If not then proxy firewall destroy this packet.   The transparent firewall acts as a gateway of a network. Mainly it is a routed hop. It is also called layer 2 firewalls which perform as a "bump in the wire" or a "stealth firewall." A transparent firewall has commonly used the firewall. The proxy filter firewall is extremely secure than the transparent firewall. The main difference between the transparent firewall and proxy firewall is proxy firewall use a proxy server in the system, but the transparent firewall is used routed hop firewall. NAT stand for Network Address Translation. NAT is applied in a single device as a network gateway. For an example router. A net enables router connect with the internet and hide the entire private from the public network. In NAT system, it is not necessary to recognize all the internal devices. All the generated request by workstation are sent via the router. NAT help the router to transfer this packets in the internet t destination. The NAT convert the source address of all packets and place its IP address. If security is to provide in to the NAT, the network will be more secure for the attackers. Mainly NAT create a firewall for the security purpose. All servers that are presented to people in the general system (web), including web servers and DNS servers ought to be set in the DMZ. The DMZ is a different subnet situated outside of the association's system, but at the same time secured by a firewall. Movement starting from the organization's system is permitted into the DMZ, however, activity from the DMZ is not allowed into the association's system. This is imperative since ought to a server get to be bargained, and an aggressor cannot access the organization's inside system. Braun, J., Volk, F., Classen, J., Buchmann, J. and Mà ¼hlhà ¤user, M., 2014. CA trust management for the Web PKI. Journal of Computer Security, 22(6), pp.913-959. Bray, R.F., Grzelak, C.P. and Keirstead, J.D., International Business Machines Corporation, 2015. Firewall event reduction for rule use counting. U.S. Patent 9,043,461. Carthern, C., Wilson, W., Bedwell, R. and Rivera, N., 2015. Network Address Translation and Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol. In Cisco Networks (pp. 255-272). Apress. Francis, P., 2015. Network Address Translation (NAT). ACM SIGCOMM Computer Communication Review, 45(2), pp.50-50. Ghai, S. and Verma, A., 2015. Network Security Using Divergent Firewall Technologies. IITM Journal of Information Technology, 1, p.29. Kachare, M.S.S. and Deshmukh, P., 2015. Firewall Policy Anomaly Management with Optimizing Rule Order. International Journal of Application or Innovation in Engineering & Management (IJAIEM), 4(2), pp.201-205. Mao, H., Zhu, L. and Li, M., 2012, September. Current State and Future Development Trend of Firewall Technology. In Wireless Communications, Networking and Mobile Computing (WiCOM), 2012 8th International Conference on (pp. 1-4). IEEE. Vratonjic, N., Freudiger, J., Bindschaedler, V. and Hubaux, J.P., 2013. The inconvenient truth about web certificates. In Economics of information security and privacy iii (pp. 79-117). Springer New York.

Sports Communication Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Sports Communication - Essay Example release was effective since it was current and assessed the officiated events that occurred in the last two minutes of Game 3 of The Finals (NBA, 2015). The last two minutes of Game 3 of The Finals were significant since five points were at stake. However, the release only covered the officiated events. The release also notes the assessment could change upon the review of a new video angle. The design of the release was not attractive since it lacked any visual aids. It also featured long paragraphs. However, the release allows the audience to comment or respond through the NBA Communications Department. The above release was effective since it had a four-day notice to the beginning of the NFL Rookie Symposium. The release also defined and explained the meaning, history, significance, venue, participants, and duration of the NFL Rookie Symposium in details (NFL, 2015). The design of the release was equally attractive since it had a bold headline and short paragraphs. The release bears the NFL logo, a link for further information, and a visible release date. The head of the sports department issued the media release. The release defined the types, timing, and qualifications to sports scholarships in our school. The release sought to attract qualified students to apply for the scholarships. The head of the sports department issued the release at the end of previous academic year at the school’s sports office. The school’s administrator issued the media release. The release explained the termination of the basketball scholarship in our school. The release sought to inform qualified students and other interested parties of the unavailability of the scholarship in our school. The school’s administrator issued the release at the end of previous academic year at the school’s sports office. FIFA. (2015, June 18). Successful FIFA U-20 World Cup set for fitting finale. Retrieved from

Marcating communication Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Marcating communication - Essay Example To make IMC an ongoing successful process, Unilever needs to allocate funds for this purpose separately and ensure that it maintains reserves so that it can smoothly carry on with its promotional strategies. This would enable the company to run its promotional campaigns smoothly without suffering significant bottlenecks. Marketing communication has become one of the most important aspects that an organisation needs to pay attention to as adoption of proper marketing tools determines the success of the company and its long term sustainability in the industry as a whole. The art of communicating the features of a product to the customers determines whether the product would be an instant hit or would be killed in its early stage of its life cycle. Unilever is one of the leading company’s in the consumer goods market offering a host of products starting from consumer durables to personal care and food items. Being a large organisation with almost 400 well–established brands, the company has felt the increasing need of integrating the various tools of communication to reach its consumers at large and convince them to use their products. The company has adopted IMC approach to build its niche in the market. This has helped the company to steer its growth in the industry and attract increasing number of customers. Though IMC offers a host of advantages but it also has its own set of disadvantages. The company has estimated that it needs to adopt proper strategies in order to offset the demerits of IMC. To differentiate itself from its competitors, the company has adopted unique modes of communication and has designed its advertisements in such a way that it attracts increasing number of customers. This has made prod ucts of Unilever one of the most demanding amongst the customers across the globe Integrated Marketing

Political Concept of Property Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Political Concept of Property - Essay Example This essay outlines the importance of the legal concept of the ownership of a property in a society. That concept is a critical element that defines the difference between communism and capitalism – the two polar political ideologies. The ownership of a property involves the rights and obligations of the owner who claims possession of the property. Property is a possession essentially belonging to an individual or a government. The ownership of property is a major element that defines its legal, social, and economic aspects which itself is underlined by political regimes and policymaking in the field. Political frameworks and legislations exist to protect the rights of individuals. Therefore, property has a political aspect because it involves ownership, transfer of rights, and other variations in rights in which governmental authorities, legislations, and institutions play a vital role. Income and taxation are economic concepts associated with a property. Property in the form of real estate or livestock could earn income for a person. At the same time the income could be liable for taxation. But because property essentially involves a ‘proprietary’ component, it occupies a central place in the politics of rights and governance. It indicates that property is characterized by possession which is fluid in nature. Rights related to ownership and transfer of land remain sensitive issues that are guided by government laws. Another fundamental aspect of property ownership is the political ideology.

Habermas the Public Sphere Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Habermas the Public Sphere - Essay Example 1-13). According to many political theorists, the public sphere is an important entity for a strong democracy. The public and the private spheres acquired a clear distinction in the 17th and 18th century. The public sphere usually consists of informal citizen discussions and deliberations that lead to the formation of a public opinion which is rational enough to guide and influence political systems. Habermas has given a complete outline of the public sphere in The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society. (1989). This piece of work outlines the public sphere critical theory in a systematically developed manner (Dahlgren, 1995, p. 44). The public sphere thus develops from the realms of public authority as well as private relations. The private relations may involve the family and the civil society at large. The private individuals, therefore, come together to form the public sphere. They are driven by the notion of speech without censorship as well as the desire for unified reasoning. According to Habermas, therefore, the public sphere involves both historical economic and political concerns. He continues to explain that every communication contains a communicative action which is oriented towards an agreement. Whenever a matter concerning living together as a people with differences is debated, the public sphere is always constituted. The public sphere became more of a commercial and entertainment entity rather than its conserving its political character. The shift from the original character to other commercialized versions is documented in the press. Habermas, therefore, looks at the integration of literature and journalism as well as the role played by mass media. The public sphere was also affected by the emergence of mass media. The apparent evolution of the communications environment has made the public sphere to change to a platform for advertisements. As a result of these, there emerges a new class of participants such as public relations practitioners (Thompson, 1993, p. 67). Democracy, according to Habermas, is founded on the world of life. It is this world of life that enables free communication between different people. It also drives people into pursuing private and individual interests as opposed to common goals in life. The media plays a crucial role in any democracy. This comes easier, of course, if the environment is right. Such an environment is one which consists of the requisite skills that enable democratic reporting. The media is most of the time flooded with advertisements that target some individual tastes. The information that is presented is also based on the pre-existing views. There should, therefore, be mechanisms which check for public accountability as well as professionalism in media operations. One of the characteristics that identify a democracy is the independence of the media. This is strengthened by the financial viability of the media organizatio ns. Financial strength ensures that the media operates in an environment free of external influences, especially political influences (Hallin, 1994, p.12). The media is also an essential for checking the political system when that system is unable to meet the social expectations. The media is, however, not expected to entertain political bias or partisan reporting at all. Accessibility of the media

How global warming disrupts North American wildlife Research Paper

How global warming disrupts North American wildlife - Research Paper Example s like sparrows, swallows, song birds, wood peckers etc help in facilitating pollination of plants that characterise the nature of forests found in the north American region consisting of fire-plants, maple foliages, evergreen trees etc. Animals like deer, squirrels etc help in distributing seeds through dispersed food and seeds in their faeces. The migration of these agents of botanical diversity and generation may cause the forests to gradually diminish in terms of their size, structure and density. Effects of Global Warming on Bio Diversity and North American Wildlife The Wild Life Society, a 9000 member strong community of wild life professionals, produced a study on effects of global warming on wildlife, is the first comprehensive study of the impact of global warming on North American Wildlife. (Pegg 1) The work conducted by The Wild Life Society is adding to the growing body of scientific work that suggests that global warming may pose the greatest threat to biodiversity wipin g out rare and endangered species and reducing typical forests to barren land. A study by the National Wildlife Federation has projected that there will be â€Å"disruption of essential ecological processes, displacement or disappearance of coastal wetland species, significant loss of coastal marshes and disruption of alpine and Arctic ecosystems† (Wetkit News 1) Some of the Salient finding s of the study conducted by the NWF includes: The report's major findings include: A Projected rise in the sea level due to global climate change. This may cause some wildlife species to abandon their habitat in search of inland areas or disappear entirely if their lowland wetlands are rapidly eroded by the sea. "Even a small amount of warming may eliminate some wetland plant and animal species in alpine... This paper stresses that the threat to wildlife is more visible further up the latitudes in the regions of Alaska, British Columbia, and Northwest territories etc. Small changes in temperatures lead to magnified effects in terms of ecology shift, higher death rates of animal species and abandoning of habitat. This report makes a concluiosn that out of all the species found in the places further up the latitudes in the cold and arid regions of Alaska and Canada, the polar bear and some seal species are the most threatened. It has been forecasted that these two species may be the first to become extinct if global warming continues to affect the ecology. Moreover the forecast given by scientists and researchers did not take into account the adverse and extent of damage to ecology due to climatic imbalances. The study on North American Wildlife by National wildlife Foundation, an organisation dedicated to research and progress on wildlife conservation, spells out a certain threat. The author talks that the radical change in climatic conditions will affect the habitat and living conditions of virtually every species. As temperatures increase, these species will move up the latitudes in search of cooler areas. The shift of the range of habitat and animal life that depends on them will shift nor thwards. This means that species of animals would have to shift northward to continue living in a favourable environment. Many species in this process will become extinct due to lack of a habitat.

Analysis of Merck& Company Inc Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Analysis of Merck& Company Inc - Research Paper Example If a strategy had not been introduced for keeping Merck’s competitiveness at low levels, the following phenomenon would appear: the firm’s ability to face its rivals would be gradually decreased, leading to severe losses in one or more organizational activities. In other words, an aggressive strategy would be the most appropriate for the organization under current market positions. Figure 1 – Total revenue for Merck & Company Inc for the years 2006 up to 2008 (source: case study, p.132) At the same time, the firm’s profits for 2008 have been a bit lower from those of 2007, see Figure 1 above, leading to the assumption that a strategy for securing the survival and the further growth of the organization is necessary. In other words, the annual objective that the firm’s managers have set can be characterized as feasible, an assumption based both on the firm’s performance in the near past but also on the industry’s perspectives and demands . ... The above acquisition will help Merck to achieve two key benefits: to decrease its costs and to increase the range of its products, enhancing its competitiveness in the global market. In fact, acquisitions have been used by the firm for quite long, from 2000 onwards and have been proved quite effective in supporting organizational growth (case study p.130). c) Resource Allocation When referring to organizational environment the term resources can be used for reflecting a high range of organizational elements, including ‘money, material and technology’ (Morgan 169). In the context of strategic management, resource allocation is characterized as quite valuable for the achievement of organizational goals. In fact, resources can be vital even for the survival of the organization, under the terms that without the required resources all business plans can be led to failure (Daft, Murphy and Hugh 557). Indeed, resource allocation refers to the resources that are necessary for a ll operations of each organization, including ‘salaries, equipment, employees and so on’ (Daft, Murphy and Hugh 557). Because of its importance, resource allocation should be based on a plan incorporated in a firm’s corporate strategy (Schermerhorn 138). Changes on a firm’s existing resource allocation can lead to severe conflicts if the changes attempted are not welcomed by one or more groups of stakeholders, such as employees or suppliers (Griffin and Moorehead 514). For example, a decrease of the rewards provided to employees for their performance can result to employees’ protests; these protests could cause severe delays in the completion of

Liam and Irene live at 8 MacDuff Lane, Elgin. They have two children, Case Study

Liam and Irene live at 8 MacDuff Lane, Elgin. They have two children, Stuart and Tracy, aged 8 and 4 years respectivel - Case Study Example This is because the couple will be required to cater for the monthly mortgage fee and insurance premium before the new owners move in. Consequently, the computations below illustrated the actual amount each of the three offers will generate. Consequently, the analysis above reveals that the third offer is most preferable for the couple due to its potential of maximizing the untaxed capital gain they will accumulate (King & Carey, 2014). This implies that the couple should consider selling their house to the third buyer at the price of  £195,000. Even though the offer will cost the couple a higher maintenance, the strategy will allow a realization of a higher net value of the house. The optimal decision that Liam should undertake on the 1,000 shares he inherited from his father is to sell them at the current lower price. This is because the strategy will allow Liam to avoid capital gain tax from the sale of the inherited shares. Shares that are inherited use the market value price at the day they were inherited if they were inherited after 31st of March 1932 by the new owner (Mclaughlin, 2013). Owing to the recent sharp decline of the distillery shares, the current price is likely to be lower than the market value of the shares at the day of their inheritance. Thus, Liam will avoid paying lump sum tax amount by selling the shares at their current prices instead of keeping them in future that might attract tax (Spencer, 2013). In addition, selling the shares currently will allow Liam to claim for capital loss in his tax return. This is because the net amount that will be realized from the sale of the shares will be lower than the market value of the shares at th e day of their inheritance. Even though the price of the shares will be lower than the market value under consideration, the value of the shares has the potential of been higher to that of the original price his father acquired the shares.

Pony Trap Essay Example for Free

Pony Trap Essay Susan Hill the creator of the woman in black , successfully creates fear through out her novel. It comes in ebbs and flows by using different techniques throughout to build up the tension. This book is a gothic horror which is a new genre but using the traditional horror aspects, one of the first books in the categories is’ The castle of Otranto’ published in 1767. They are typified by their dark, lachrymose atmosphere of hatred and fear. Hill used many traditional techniques such as the stereotypical use of pathetic fallacy reflecting the dark mood. The setting as its deserted and away from society, isolation , a ghost with hauntings all follow the conventional aspects. However the modern twist to hills novel is that the characters are unconvential, as in the normal gothic story the man is the scary character haunting a venerable or innocent young woman such as in’ Dracula’ he suck blood from all sweet caring ladies. Unlike in this case there is a ambitious young man being haunted by a revengeful young woman. From this the tension from new and old ways combine to create a heart pumping book which fear deeply impacts the reader. Fear is created in many ways in the chapter ‘The Sound of the Pony trap’ and many other chapters. The chapter† the sound of the pony trap† creates and builds fear and tension through out using a climax technique. Similar to other chapters in the novel it is developed throughout with no clear resolution at the end. In this chapter Hill uses pathetic fallacy frequently to make a prediction what is going to happen next, as Arthurs mood reflect the weather. At the beginning of the chapter he describes the feeling trying to get back the causeway as’, as the weather is really bad you are expecting this night to be a bad one and develop the scene of fear, from the Woman In Black. However after Keckwick arrives to pick up Kipps at 2am the weather was described as ‘all was so changed’. This shows that the mood to Kipps is so relived to see Keckwick to save him so the weather reflects his thoughts. Then finally the main element to the developing aspect of fear is haunting. These parts where the Woman in Black haunts Kipps are the moments when a cold feeling runs through the readers body and start to panic a little. The main haunting in this chapter is the sound of the pons trap and over all this is the most fearful part that distressed Kipps the most. The woman in black puts sounds in his head as a cart has over turned in the marshes and they are drowning so shouting for help with the cry off a child’s voice. After ‘an outburst of helpless sobbing’ , he was so overwhelmed by this a grown man cried over it. The haunting of the woman in black really breaks Kipps and this is the detrition of the man in till he becomes ill with fright. Fear is created, as hill shows how it effected Kipps and this is the part where the reader starts to feel afraid and fear is created.

Bees Affected by Cell Phones Radiation Essay Example for Free

Bees Affected by Cell Phones Radiation Essay Bees are vanishing and cell phones are everywhere†¦there definitely could be a link. The Institute of Science in Society delivered a press release in April 2007 saying â€Å"one likely culprit of [CCD] is a new class of systemic pesticides, which are not only sprayed on crops, but also used universally to dress seeds in conventional agriculture, and can confuse and disorientate bees at very low concentrations† although â€Å"another candidate is a radiation from mobile phone base stations that has become nearly ubiquitous in Europe and North America where the bees are vanishing; this possibility is considerably strengthened by preliminary findings that bees fail to return to the hives if cordless phone base stations are placed in them. † The following experiment may prove that it is all about the wireless phones: Researchers at Landau University in Germany designed a simple experiment for students on the Environmental Science course. Eight mini-hives, each with approximately 8 000 bees were set up for the experiment. Four of them were equipped with a DECT (Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunication)-station at the bottom of the hive, and the other four without the DECT-station served as controls. At the entrance of each hive, a transparent plastic tube enabled the experimenters to watch the marked bees entering and leaving the hive, so they can be counted and their time of return after release recorded for a period of 45 minutes. The experimenters also studied building behavior by measuring the area of the honeycomb and its weight. In the course of the experiment, three colonies exposed to mobile phone radiation and one non-exposed control colony broke down. The total weights of the honeycombs in all colonies, including those at the time of breakdown were compared. The controls weighed 1 326g, while those exposed to the DECT-stations weighed only 1 045g, a difference of 21 percent. The total area of the honeycomb in the controls was 2 500, compared to just 2050 in the exposed hives. But it was the number of returning bees and their returning times that were vastly different. For two control hives, 16 out of 25 bees returned in 45 minutes. For the two microwave-exposed hives, however, no bees at all returned to one hive, and only six returned to the other. The article continues, saying: Clearly the present findings need to be taken much further, but their significance should not be downplayed for a number of reasons. The findings are compatible with evidence accumulating from investigations on many other species including humans, showing that mobile phone radiation is associated with a range of health hazards including cancers. Furthermore, bees are known to be extremely sensitive to magnetic and electromagnetic fields, and there have been many suggestions that they could be used as an indicator species for electromagnetic pollution.

Management of Advertising Program

Management of Advertising Program ADVERTISING MANAGEMENT Advertising is any paid form of nonpersonal presentation and promotion of ideas, goods, or services by an identified sponsor. Five major decisions involve the mission, money, message, media and measurement Advertising—the use of paid media by a seller to communicate persuasive information about its products, services, or organization—is a potent promotional tool. Advertising takes on many forms (national, regional, local, consumer, industrial, retail, product, brand, institutional, etc.) designed to achieve a variety of objectives (awareness, interest, preference, brand recognition, brand insistence). Advertising decision-making consists of objectives setting, budget decision, message decision, media decision, and ad effectiveness evaluation. Advertisers should establish clear goals as to whether the advertising is supposed to inform, persuade, or remind buyers. The factors to consider when setting the advertising budget are: stage in the product life cycle, market share, competition and clutter, needed frequency, and product substitutability. The advertising budget can be established based on what is affordable, as a percentage budget of sales, based on competitors expenditures, or based on objectives and tasks, and based on more advanced decision models that are available. The message decision calls for generating messages, evaluating and selecting between them, and executing them effectively and responsibly. The media decision calls for defining the reach, frequency, and impact goals; choosing among major media types; selecting specific media vehicles; deciding on media timing; geographical allocation of media. Finally, campaign evaluation calls for evaluating the communication and sales effects of advertising, before, during, and after the advertising. Developing and managing an advertising program (An overview) Setting the advertising objectives—according to whether the aim is to inform, remind, or persuade Deciding on the advertising budget—five factors to consider include stage in the product life cycle, market share and consumer base, competition and clutter, advertising frequency, and product substitutability Choosing the advertising message—creative stage Message generation—utilizing an inductive versus deductive framework Message evaluation and selection—focus on one core selling proposition and aim for desirability, exclusiveness and believability. Message execution—impact depends not only on what is said but how it is said (positioning). Creative people must also find a style, tone, and format for executing the message Social responsibility review—make sure the creative advertising does not overstep social and legal norms Deciding on media and measuring effectiveness Deciding on reach (number of people exposed at least once), frequency (total number of times they are reached) and impact (qualitative value) The relationship between reach, frequency and impact, specific media, media timing, geographical allocation a) Media selection: target audience, media habits, product, message, and cost Determining the most cost-effective media to deliver the desired number and type of exposures to the target audience Choosing among major media types b) Target audience media habits c) Product characteristics d) Message characteristics e) Cost (based on cost-per-thousand exposures criterion) New media—rethinking the options f) Commercial clutter, advertorials, infomercials g) Result is coming death of traditional mass media, as we know it—more direct and consumer control coming Allocating the budget—increasingly spent attracting attention than on the product itself Selecting specific vehicles—measures include: h) Circulation, audience, effective audience, effective ad-exposed audience i) CPM adjustments based on audience quality, audience-attention probability, editorial quality and ad placement policies Deciding on the media timing j) Macro-scheduling (according to seasonal or business trends) k) Micro-scheduling (allocating advertising expenditures within a short period to obtain the maximum impact) l) Models for media timing: Kuehn (if no carryover and habitual behavior then percent of sales justified) Deciding on the geographical allocation a) National versus international b) Spot buying (ADIs and DMAs) Evaluating advertising effectiveness a) Communication-effect research—copy testing, consumer feedback, portfolio tests, laboratory tests b) Sales-effect research—share of voice and share of market, historical approach, experimental design c) Advertising effectiveness: a summary of current research Benefits of Advertising Enormous human and material resources are devoted to advertising. Advertising is everywhere in todays world .People are exposed to various forms of advertising through various advertising messages, media, billboards and techniques of every sort. The General benefits of advertising are as follows. a) Economic Benefits of Advertising Advertising can play an important role in the process by which an economic system that is guided by ethical. It is a necessary part of the functioning of modern market economies, which today either exist or are emerging in many parts of the world. Advertising can be a useful tool for sustaining ethical competition that contributes to economic growth. It can help people by informing them about the availability of desirable new products and services and improvements in existing ones, helping them to stay informed, prudent consumer decisions, contributing to efficiency and the lowering of prices, and stimulating economic progress through the expansion of business and trade. b) Benefits of Political Advertising Political advertising can make a contribution economic situation in a market system. As free and responsible media in a democratic system help to counteract tendencies toward the monopolies, so political advertising can make its contribution by informing people about the ideas and policy proposals of parties and candidates, including new candidates not previously known to the public. c) Cultural Benefits of Advertising Because of the impact advertising has on media that depend on it for revenue, advertisers have an opportunity to exert a positive influence on decisions about media content. This they do by supporting material of excellent aesthetics and moral quality, and particularly by encouraging and making possible media presentations which are oriented to minorities whose needs might otherwise go unserved. Moreover, advertising can itself contribute to the betterment of society by uplifting and inspiring people and motivating them to act in ways that benefit themselves and others. Advertising can brighten lives simply by being witty and entertaining. d) Moral Benefits of Advertising In many cases social institutions use advertising to communicate their messages messages of moral values ,ethics ,patriotism, responsibilities toward the needy, messages concerning health and education, constructive and helpful messages that educate and motivate people in a variety of beneficial ways. Benefits of advertising from companys view point: 1. Provides information Consumer needs information about various products. The lack of information may make a consumer buy an inferior product, pay high price etc. 2. Improves brand image: Advertisement helps improve brand image. Images are mental pictures of brands. The images projected are geared to match the needs and expectations of target audience. Favorable image help in generating brand loyalty and disposition to buy that brand. 3. Helps in Innovation: Advertising is seen to perform this task effectively for new products. It reduces the risk of innovation. The cost of innovation can be more than recovered by the sales which advertising may generate and this encourages manufacturers to undertake research and development. 4. New Product Launch Various strategies including advertising is used to make potential buyers of new products. Advertising can be used to promote new products and to inform changes in old products. 5. Growth of Media: Advertising enhances the potential for raising advertising revenues. This helps in launching new publications and expanding the media. Role of advertising 1. Communication with Consumers: Advertising is a major way of establishing communication between manufacturers and other organizations providing services or trying to put across ideas and concepts, on the one hand, and customers, buyers and potential acceptors, on the other. 2. Persuasion: Advertising attempts to persuade prospective buyers to buy a product/service. In modern markets, the producer who is content with the advertising that merely identifies or informs may soon find himself in a vulnerable position. 3. Contribution to Economic Growth: Advertising contributes to economic growth by helping to expand the market, particularly for new products, and by helping to develop new market segments. 4. Catalyst for change: Creativity inherent in advertising leads to the discovery of new relationships that can change the perception of a prospect. Functions of Advertising 1. Primary Functions Helps to increase sales Helps to reduce overall cost of sales Provides information about the product Persuasion of customers or dealers Receptiveness of new product Stimulates distribution of products Insurance for manufacturing business Confidence in quality To eliminate seasonal fluctuation To generate awareness and revenue Builds value, brand loyalty and preference 2. Secondary Functions  · To encourage salesmen and lend them moral support  · To furnish information  · To impress executives  · To impress factory workers  · To secure better employees  · To capture market  · To have an extra edge over the market * Feeling of security Advertising is a social waste * Because its time consuming * It does focus on specific group only. * Waste of resources. * Consumers are deceived by advertising. * Misleading information to the public. * It affects the health by having alcohols and cigarettes advertising. * Consumers are paying for those advertisements because fess will be added into the price of the product. * People are lured to buy products which is not needed and not within their reach. (propensity to consume) Some critics view advertising as a waste of time, talent and money —In their view, not only does advertising have no value of its own, but its influence is entirely harmful and corrupting for individuals and society. Sometimes advertisements depict false assertions which create a false impact in individuals and society. a) Economic Harms of Advertising Advertising can betray its role as a source of information by misrepresentation and by withholding relevant facts. Sometimes the information function of media can be subverted by advertisers pressure More often, advertising is used not simply to inform but to persuade and motivate to convince people to act in certain ways, buy certain products or services This is where particular abuses can occur. Brand advertising can raise serious problems. Often there are only negligible differences among similar products of different brands, and advertising may attempt to move people to act on the basis of irrational motives like brand loyalty, status, fashion, instead of presenting differences in product quality and price as bases for rational choice. b) Harms of Political Advertising Political advertising can support and assist the working of the democratic system, but it also can obstruct it. This happens when the costs of advertising limit political competition to wealthy candidates or groups Political advertising seeks to distort the views and records of opponents and unjustly attacks their reputations. It happens when advertising appeals more to peoples emotions and base instincts — to selfishness, bias and hostility toward others, to racial and ethnic prejudice and the like — rather than to a reasoned sense of justice and the good of all. c) Cultural Harms of Advertising Advertising also can have a corrupting influence upon culture and cultural values.. In the competition to attract ever larger audiences and deliver them to advertisers, communicators can find themselves tempted — in fact pressured, subtly or not so subtly — to set aside high artistic and moral standards and lapse into superficiality Communicators also can find themselves tempted to ignore the educational and social needs of certain segments of the audience — the very young, the very old, the poor — who do not match the demographic patterns (age, education, income, habits of buying and consuming, etc.) of the kinds of audiences advertisers want to reach. d) Moral and Religious Harms of Advertising Advertising sometimes is used to promote products and inculcate attitudes and forms of behavior contrary to moral norms. Characteristics of advertising 1. Advertising is paid form of communication. 2. Advertising is non personal communication. 3. Advertising has an identified sponsor. 4. Advertising can be controlled. Advertising Agency An advertising agency or ad agency is a service business dedicated to creating, planning and handling advertising (and sometimes other forms of promotion) for their clients. An ad agency is independent from the client and provides an outside point of view to the effort of selling the clients products or services. An agency can also handle overall marketing and branding strategies and sales promotions for its clients. An advertising agency acts in the fist place as a consultant to its client, the advertiser in formulating the advertising plans and translating them into advertising campians. The other role of ad agency, namely placing the advertisment, articles from its traditional association with the media. Typical ad agency clients include businesses and corporations, non-profit organizations and government agencies. Agencies may be hired to produce single ads or, more commonly, ongoing series of related ads, called an advertising campaign. Ad agencies come in all sizes, from small one- or two-person shops to large multi-national, multi-agency conglomerates such as Omnicom Group or WPP Group. Some agencies specialize in particular types of advertising, such as print ads or television commercials. Other agencies, especially larger ones, produce work for many types of media (creating integrated marketing communications, or through-the-line (TTL) advertising). The line, in this case, is the traditional marker between media that pay a (traditionally 15%) commission to the agency (mainly broadcast media) and the media that do not. Role / Functions of an advertising agency 1. Planning the advertisement campaign 2. Creation of the advertisement 3. Execution or placing the advertisement in various media vehicles. 4. Marketing and advertising Research 5. Sales promotion 6. Public relations STRUCTURE OF ADVERTISING AGENCIES An agency, depending on its size, will likely have different departments which work on the separate aspects of an account. An account manager or the account planning department will coordinate the work of these departments to insure that all the clients needs are met. The departments within a full-service agency will typically include: RESEARCH The research department will be able to provide clients with some details about the prospective audience of the final advertising campaign, as well as information about the market for the product being advertised. This should include specific market research which leads to a very focused ad campaign, with advertising directed to the ideal target audience. CREATIVE SERVICES Advertising agencies employ experts in many creative fields that provide quality, professional services that conform to the standards of the industry. Copywriters provide the text for print ads, and the scripts for television or radio advertising. Graphic designers are responsible for the presentation of print ads, and the art department is responsible for providing the necessary images for whatever format advertisement is decided upon. Some agencies have in-house photographers and printers, while others regularly employ the services of contractors. The individuals involved in creative services are responsible for developing the advertising platform, which sets the theme and tone of the ad campaign. The advertising platform should draw upon specific, positive features of the product advertised and extrapolate the benefits the consumer could expect to receive as a result of using the product. The campaign, through the development of this platform, should prove to be eye-catching, memorable, and in some way unique. The advertising that is remembered by consumers is that which stands out from the rest; it is the advertising agencys (and specifically the creative services departments) responsibility to provide this quality for their clients. The final advertising provided by an agency should be fully developed and polished. Television commercials should be produced with professionalism; print ads should be attractive, informational, and attention-getting; radio spots should be focused and of high audio quality. MEDIA BUYING One of the services provided by advertising agencies is the careful placement of finished advertisements in various media, with an eye toward maximizing the potential audience. The research search conducted by the agency will inform any media-buying decisions. An agency will be able to negotiate the terms of any contracts made for placing ads in any of various media. A full-service agency will deal confidently with television, radio, newspapers, and magazines. Some agencies are also branching into direct mail marketing and point of purchase incentives; some agencies have expanded into Internet advertising; and some agencies will also place an ad in the local yellow pages, or utilize outdoor advertising or one of the more creative avenues of incidental advertising, such as commercial signs on public buses or subways or on billboards. The media-buying staff of an advertising agency will draw on specific research done for the client, as well as on past experience with different media. Through this research and careful consideration, the agency will develop a media plan: this should be a fully realized plan of attack for getting out the clients message. Some factors to be considered in the development of the media plan include: Cost Per Thousand: This refers to the cost of an advertisement per one thousand potential customers it reaches. Media-buyers use this method to compare the various media avenues they must choose between. For example, television ads are considerably more expensive than newspaper ads, but they also reach many more people. Cost per thousand is a straightforward way to evaluate how to best spend advertising dollars: if a newspaper ad costs $100 and potentially reaches 2,000 customers, the cost per thousand is $50. If a television ad costs $1000 to produce and place in suitable television spots, and reaches a potential of 40,000 viewers, the cost per thousand is only $25. Reach: This term is used when discussing the scope of an advertisement. The reach of an ad is the number of households which can safely be assumed will be affected by the clients message. This is usually expressed as a percentage of total households. For example, if there are 1,000 households in a town, and 200 of those households receive the daily paper, the reach of a well-placed newspaper ad could be expressed as 20 percent: one-fifth of the households in the community can be expected to see the advertisement. Frequency: The frequency of a message refers to how often a household can be expected to be exposed to the clients message. Frequency differs widely between media, and even within the same medium. Newspapers, for example, are read less often on Saturdays, and by many more households (and more thoroughly) on Sundays. Fluctuation like this occurs in all media. Continuity: The media-buyer will also need to consider the timing of advertisements. Depending on the clients product, the ads can be evenly spread out over the course of a day (for radio or television advertisements), a week (for radio, television, or print advertisements), or a month (radio, television, print, or other media). Of course, seasonal realities influence the placement of advertisements as well. Clothing retailers may need to run more advertisements as a new school year approaches, or when new summer merchandise appears. Hardware stores may want to emphasize their wares in the weeks preceding the Christmas holiday. Grocery stores or pharmacies, however, might benefit from more evenly distributed advertising, such as weekly advertisements that emphasize the year-round needs of consumers. DAGMAR APPROACH HIERARCHY OF EFFECTS MODEL Russell H Colley (1961) prepared a report for the association of national advertisers titled defining Advertising Goals for Measured Advertising Results (DAGMAR). He developed a model for setting advertising objectives and measuring the results of an ad campaign. According to this model, communications effect is the logical basis for setting advertising objective and goals against which results should be measured. In Colleys words â€Å"Advertising job purely and simply is to communicate to a defined audience information and a frame of mind that stimulate action. Advertising succeed or fails depending on how well it communi-cate the desired information and attitude to the right time and at the right cost.† Awareness Comprehension Conviction Action There are no significant differences between Colleys proposed model and other important hierarchy of effects models. One important contribution of DAGMAR was its ability to clarify what continuous a good objective. According to Colley, the objective should have the following features: Stated in term of concrete and measurable communication tasks. Specify a target audience. Indicate a benchmark or standard starting point. Specify a time period for accomplishing the objective or objectives. Concrete measurable tasks The DAGMAR approach requires that the measurement procedure should also be specified. There must be a way to determine whether the intended ad message has been communicated properly to the target audience. If the ad message communicates that brand X is the best on Q attribute, then a questionnaire may include the request, â€Å"rank the following brands on best Q attribute.† The responses could be quantified to mean percentage of audience who rated brand X as the best on Q attribute. Target audience Another important feature of good objectives is the specification of a well-defined target audience. Though the primary target audience for a companys product or service is describe in situation analysis, yet it may need some refining. For example, user of a product may be further categorized as heavy, medium or light users. Benchmark and degree of change sought It is important to know the target audiences present status with respect to responses variable and then determine the degree of change desired by the advertising campaign. Assessment and criticism of DAGMAR approach The DAGMAR approach has had an enormous influence on the advertising planning process and objective setting. It has focused the advertisers attention on the important and value of using communication-based objectives as against sales based objectives to measure the impact and success of an ad campaign. The approach has not been totally accepted by everyone in the advertising field. A number of questions have been raised concerning its value as an advertising planning tool. Problems with responses hierarchy Sales as the advertising goal Practicality and costs Inhibits creativity Hierarchy-of-Effects Models Among advertising theories, the hierarchy-of-effects model is predominant. It shows clear steps of how advertising works, even though it has been criticized on some points, such as that people do not exactly follow these sequences. There are various versions of hierarchy-of-effects model. AIDA model is initiatory and simplest. Awareness à   Interest à   Desire à   Action AIDA model was presented by Elmo Lewis to explain how personal selling works. It shows a set of stair-step stages which describe the process leading a potential customer to purchase. The stages, Attention, Interest, Desire, and Action, form a linear hierarchy. It demonstrates that consumers must be aware of a products existence, be interested enough to pay attention to the products features/benefits, and have a desire to benefit from the products offerings. Action, the fourth stage, would come as a natural result of movement through the first three stages. Although this idea was rudimentary, it led to the later emerging field of consumer behavior research. Hierarchy-of-effects models have many variant models. DAGMAR (Defining Advertising Goals for Measured Advertising Results) model suggests similar but different steps. Awareness à   Comprehension à   Conviction à   Action DAGMAR model suggests that the ultimate objective of advertising must carry a consumer through four levels of understanding: from unawareness to Awareness—the consumer must first be aware of a brand or company; Comprehension—he or she must have a comprehension of what the product is and its benefits; Conviction—he or she must arrive at the mental disposition or conviction to buys the brand; Action—finally, he or she actually buy that product. Determining the Advertising Budget An important goal in determining the size of an advertising budget is to maximize profits. To achieve this goal, even approximately, is a very complex problem. Many procedures or rules have been adopted to provide what appears to be a reasonable answer from one point of view or another, but which, most people in the business would agree, are very crude at best. Hence, such approaches as â€Å"percentage-of-sales,† â€Å"all-you-can-afford,† â€Å"objective-and-task† and â€Å"competitive-parity,† are used because â€Å"scientific† approached either dont exist, or have not been able to prove their superiority. The difficulties of devising a scientific approach are fairly well know. The multitude of factors involved and the scarcity of relevant and accurate data are only two of many which could be listed. Marginal Analysis The theoretical underpinning of an advertising-budget decision is based on marginal analysis and is easily expressed. A firm would continue to add to the advertising budget as long as the incremental expenditures are exceeded by the marginal revenue they generate. Budgeting Decision Rules There are several decision rules on which many firms dray in making budget decisions. Four such rules will be described. The rules are basically justified by arguing that budgets based on them are unlikely to be far from the actual optimal budget if a marginal analysis could be performed. In some cases, the rules are used in combination, the net budget being a compromise among several. * Percentage of Sales One rule of thumb used in setting advertising budgets is the percentage of sales. Past sales or a forecast of future sales can be used as the base. A brand may have devoted 5% of its budget to advertising in the past. Thus, if the plan calls for doing $40 million worth of business next year, a $2 million advertising budget might be proposed. A similar decision could be based upon market share. For example, a brand could allocate $1 million for every share point it holds. The percentage-of-sales guide is the most common approach to setting advertising budgets. If a firm or brand has been successfully over several years using the percentage-of-sales approach, it might be assumed that the decision rule yielded budgets reasonably close to the optimal, so there is little incentive to change to another approach in setting budgets. The rule does tend to make explicit the marketing-mix decision, the allocation of the budget to the various elements of the marketing program. Furthermore, it provides comfort to a prudent financial executive who likes to know that her or his firm can afford the advertising. Finally, if competitors also use such a rule, it leads to a certain stability of advertising within the industry, which may be useful. If there is a ceiling on the size of the market, it is wise to avoid precipitating a war over advertising expenditure. * All You Can Afford Firms with limited resources may decide to spend all that they can reasonably allocate to advertising after other unavoidable expenditures have been allocated. This rule usually ensures that they are not advertising too heavily, that advertising moneys are not being wasted. It thus does have some logic. Of course, if the value of more advertising could be demonstrated, extra money could usually be raised, so the limitation may be somewhat artificial. * Competitive Parity Another guide is to adjust the advertising budge so that it is comparable to those of competitors. The logic is that the collective minds of the firms in the industry will probably generate advertising budgets that are somewhat close to the optimal. Everyone could not be too far from the optimal. Furthermore, any departure from the industry norms could precipitate a spending war. * Objective and Task Objective and task, more an approach to budgeting than a simple decision rule, is used by two-thirds of the largest advertisers. An advertising objective is first established in specific terms. For example, a firm may decide to attempt to increase the awareness of its brand in a certain population segment to 50 percent. The tasks that are requited to accomplish this objective are then detailed. They might involve the development of a particular advertising campaign exposing the relevant audience an average of the five times. The cost of obtaining these exposures then becomes the advertising budget. This approach assumes that there is a causal flow from advertising to sales. In effect, it represents an effort to introduce intervening variables such as awareness or attitude, which will presumable be indicators of future sales as well as immediate sales. Steps: 1. Task Definition: The objective of the advertising programme, are to be defined. The objectives may be to Close an immediate sale Increase sales Create awareness Building company goodwill and corporate image. 2. Determining the type of strategy, media, and amount of exposu Management of Advertising Program Management of Advertising Program ADVERTISING MANAGEMENT Advertising is any paid form of nonpersonal presentation and promotion of ideas, goods, or services by an identified sponsor. Five major decisions involve the mission, money, message, media and measurement Advertising—the use of paid media by a seller to communicate persuasive information about its products, services, or organization—is a potent promotional tool. Advertising takes on many forms (national, regional, local, consumer, industrial, retail, product, brand, institutional, etc.) designed to achieve a variety of objectives (awareness, interest, preference, brand recognition, brand insistence). Advertising decision-making consists of objectives setting, budget decision, message decision, media decision, and ad effectiveness evaluation. Advertisers should establish clear goals as to whether the advertising is supposed to inform, persuade, or remind buyers. The factors to consider when setting the advertising budget are: stage in the product life cycle, market share, competition and clutter, needed frequency, and product substitutability. The advertising budget can be established based on what is affordable, as a percentage budget of sales, based on competitors expenditures, or based on objectives and tasks, and based on more advanced decision models that are available. The message decision calls for generating messages, evaluating and selecting between them, and executing them effectively and responsibly. The media decision calls for defining the reach, frequency, and impact goals; choosing among major media types; selecting specific media vehicles; deciding on media timing; geographical allocation of media. Finally, campaign evaluation calls for evaluating the communication and sales effects of advertising, before, during, and after the advertising. Developing and managing an advertising program (An overview) Setting the advertising objectives—according to whether the aim is to inform, remind, or persuade Deciding on the advertising budget—five factors to consider include stage in the product life cycle, market share and consumer base, competition and clutter, advertising frequency, and product substitutability Choosing the advertising message—creative stage Message generation—utilizing an inductive versus deductive framework Message evaluation and selection—focus on one core selling proposition and aim for desirability, exclusiveness and believability. Message execution—impact depends not only on what is said but how it is said (positioning). Creative people must also find a style, tone, and format for executing the message Social responsibility review—make sure the creative advertising does not overstep social and legal norms Deciding on media and measuring effectiveness Deciding on reach (number of people exposed at least once), frequency (total number of times they are reached) and impact (qualitative value) The relationship between reach, frequency and impact, specific media, media timing, geographical allocation a) Media selection: target audience, media habits, product, message, and cost Determining the most cost-effective media to deliver the desired number and type of exposures to the target audience Choosing among major media types b) Target audience media habits c) Product characteristics d) Message characteristics e) Cost (based on cost-per-thousand exposures criterion) New media—rethinking the options f) Commercial clutter, advertorials, infomercials g) Result is coming death of traditional mass media, as we know it—more direct and consumer control coming Allocating the budget—increasingly spent attracting attention than on the product itself Selecting specific vehicles—measures include: h) Circulation, audience, effective audience, effective ad-exposed audience i) CPM adjustments based on audience quality, audience-attention probability, editorial quality and ad placement policies Deciding on the media timing j) Macro-scheduling (according to seasonal or business trends) k) Micro-scheduling (allocating advertising expenditures within a short period to obtain the maximum impact) l) Models for media timing: Kuehn (if no carryover and habitual behavior then percent of sales justified) Deciding on the geographical allocation a) National versus international b) Spot buying (ADIs and DMAs) Evaluating advertising effectiveness a) Communication-effect research—copy testing, consumer feedback, portfolio tests, laboratory tests b) Sales-effect research—share of voice and share of market, historical approach, experimental design c) Advertising effectiveness: a summary of current research Benefits of Advertising Enormous human and material resources are devoted to advertising. Advertising is everywhere in todays world .People are exposed to various forms of advertising through various advertising messages, media, billboards and techniques of every sort. The General benefits of advertising are as follows. a) Economic Benefits of Advertising Advertising can play an important role in the process by which an economic system that is guided by ethical. It is a necessary part of the functioning of modern market economies, which today either exist or are emerging in many parts of the world. Advertising can be a useful tool for sustaining ethical competition that contributes to economic growth. It can help people by informing them about the availability of desirable new products and services and improvements in existing ones, helping them to stay informed, prudent consumer decisions, contributing to efficiency and the lowering of prices, and stimulating economic progress through the expansion of business and trade. b) Benefits of Political Advertising Political advertising can make a contribution economic situation in a market system. As free and responsible media in a democratic system help to counteract tendencies toward the monopolies, so political advertising can make its contribution by informing people about the ideas and policy proposals of parties and candidates, including new candidates not previously known to the public. c) Cultural Benefits of Advertising Because of the impact advertising has on media that depend on it for revenue, advertisers have an opportunity to exert a positive influence on decisions about media content. This they do by supporting material of excellent aesthetics and moral quality, and particularly by encouraging and making possible media presentations which are oriented to minorities whose needs might otherwise go unserved. Moreover, advertising can itself contribute to the betterment of society by uplifting and inspiring people and motivating them to act in ways that benefit themselves and others. Advertising can brighten lives simply by being witty and entertaining. d) Moral Benefits of Advertising In many cases social institutions use advertising to communicate their messages messages of moral values ,ethics ,patriotism, responsibilities toward the needy, messages concerning health and education, constructive and helpful messages that educate and motivate people in a variety of beneficial ways. Benefits of advertising from companys view point: 1. Provides information Consumer needs information about various products. The lack of information may make a consumer buy an inferior product, pay high price etc. 2. Improves brand image: Advertisement helps improve brand image. Images are mental pictures of brands. The images projected are geared to match the needs and expectations of target audience. Favorable image help in generating brand loyalty and disposition to buy that brand. 3. Helps in Innovation: Advertising is seen to perform this task effectively for new products. It reduces the risk of innovation. The cost of innovation can be more than recovered by the sales which advertising may generate and this encourages manufacturers to undertake research and development. 4. New Product Launch Various strategies including advertising is used to make potential buyers of new products. Advertising can be used to promote new products and to inform changes in old products. 5. Growth of Media: Advertising enhances the potential for raising advertising revenues. This helps in launching new publications and expanding the media. Role of advertising 1. Communication with Consumers: Advertising is a major way of establishing communication between manufacturers and other organizations providing services or trying to put across ideas and concepts, on the one hand, and customers, buyers and potential acceptors, on the other. 2. Persuasion: Advertising attempts to persuade prospective buyers to buy a product/service. In modern markets, the producer who is content with the advertising that merely identifies or informs may soon find himself in a vulnerable position. 3. Contribution to Economic Growth: Advertising contributes to economic growth by helping to expand the market, particularly for new products, and by helping to develop new market segments. 4. Catalyst for change: Creativity inherent in advertising leads to the discovery of new relationships that can change the perception of a prospect. Functions of Advertising 1. Primary Functions Helps to increase sales Helps to reduce overall cost of sales Provides information about the product Persuasion of customers or dealers Receptiveness of new product Stimulates distribution of products Insurance for manufacturing business Confidence in quality To eliminate seasonal fluctuation To generate awareness and revenue Builds value, brand loyalty and preference 2. Secondary Functions  · To encourage salesmen and lend them moral support  · To furnish information  · To impress executives  · To impress factory workers  · To secure better employees  · To capture market  · To have an extra edge over the market * Feeling of security Advertising is a social waste * Because its time consuming * It does focus on specific group only. * Waste of resources. * Consumers are deceived by advertising. * Misleading information to the public. * It affects the health by having alcohols and cigarettes advertising. * Consumers are paying for those advertisements because fess will be added into the price of the product. * People are lured to buy products which is not needed and not within their reach. (propensity to consume) Some critics view advertising as a waste of time, talent and money —In their view, not only does advertising have no value of its own, but its influence is entirely harmful and corrupting for individuals and society. Sometimes advertisements depict false assertions which create a false impact in individuals and society. a) Economic Harms of Advertising Advertising can betray its role as a source of information by misrepresentation and by withholding relevant facts. Sometimes the information function of media can be subverted by advertisers pressure More often, advertising is used not simply to inform but to persuade and motivate to convince people to act in certain ways, buy certain products or services This is where particular abuses can occur. Brand advertising can raise serious problems. Often there are only negligible differences among similar products of different brands, and advertising may attempt to move people to act on the basis of irrational motives like brand loyalty, status, fashion, instead of presenting differences in product quality and price as bases for rational choice. b) Harms of Political Advertising Political advertising can support and assist the working of the democratic system, but it also can obstruct it. This happens when the costs of advertising limit political competition to wealthy candidates or groups Political advertising seeks to distort the views and records of opponents and unjustly attacks their reputations. It happens when advertising appeals more to peoples emotions and base instincts — to selfishness, bias and hostility toward others, to racial and ethnic prejudice and the like — rather than to a reasoned sense of justice and the good of all. c) Cultural Harms of Advertising Advertising also can have a corrupting influence upon culture and cultural values.. In the competition to attract ever larger audiences and deliver them to advertisers, communicators can find themselves tempted — in fact pressured, subtly or not so subtly — to set aside high artistic and moral standards and lapse into superficiality Communicators also can find themselves tempted to ignore the educational and social needs of certain segments of the audience — the very young, the very old, the poor — who do not match the demographic patterns (age, education, income, habits of buying and consuming, etc.) of the kinds of audiences advertisers want to reach. d) Moral and Religious Harms of Advertising Advertising sometimes is used to promote products and inculcate attitudes and forms of behavior contrary to moral norms. Characteristics of advertising 1. Advertising is paid form of communication. 2. Advertising is non personal communication. 3. Advertising has an identified sponsor. 4. Advertising can be controlled. Advertising Agency An advertising agency or ad agency is a service business dedicated to creating, planning and handling advertising (and sometimes other forms of promotion) for their clients. An ad agency is independent from the client and provides an outside point of view to the effort of selling the clients products or services. An agency can also handle overall marketing and branding strategies and sales promotions for its clients. An advertising agency acts in the fist place as a consultant to its client, the advertiser in formulating the advertising plans and translating them into advertising campians. The other role of ad agency, namely placing the advertisment, articles from its traditional association with the media. Typical ad agency clients include businesses and corporations, non-profit organizations and government agencies. Agencies may be hired to produce single ads or, more commonly, ongoing series of related ads, called an advertising campaign. Ad agencies come in all sizes, from small one- or two-person shops to large multi-national, multi-agency conglomerates such as Omnicom Group or WPP Group. Some agencies specialize in particular types of advertising, such as print ads or television commercials. Other agencies, especially larger ones, produce work for many types of media (creating integrated marketing communications, or through-the-line (TTL) advertising). The line, in this case, is the traditional marker between media that pay a (traditionally 15%) commission to the agency (mainly broadcast media) and the media that do not. Role / Functions of an advertising agency 1. Planning the advertisement campaign 2. Creation of the advertisement 3. Execution or placing the advertisement in various media vehicles. 4. Marketing and advertising Research 5. Sales promotion 6. Public relations STRUCTURE OF ADVERTISING AGENCIES An agency, depending on its size, will likely have different departments which work on the separate aspects of an account. An account manager or the account planning department will coordinate the work of these departments to insure that all the clients needs are met. The departments within a full-service agency will typically include: RESEARCH The research department will be able to provide clients with some details about the prospective audience of the final advertising campaign, as well as information about the market for the product being advertised. This should include specific market research which leads to a very focused ad campaign, with advertising directed to the ideal target audience. CREATIVE SERVICES Advertising agencies employ experts in many creative fields that provide quality, professional services that conform to the standards of the industry. Copywriters provide the text for print ads, and the scripts for television or radio advertising. Graphic designers are responsible for the presentation of print ads, and the art department is responsible for providing the necessary images for whatever format advertisement is decided upon. Some agencies have in-house photographers and printers, while others regularly employ the services of contractors. The individuals involved in creative services are responsible for developing the advertising platform, which sets the theme and tone of the ad campaign. The advertising platform should draw upon specific, positive features of the product advertised and extrapolate the benefits the consumer could expect to receive as a result of using the product. The campaign, through the development of this platform, should prove to be eye-catching, memorable, and in some way unique. The advertising that is remembered by consumers is that which stands out from the rest; it is the advertising agencys (and specifically the creative services departments) responsibility to provide this quality for their clients. The final advertising provided by an agency should be fully developed and polished. Television commercials should be produced with professionalism; print ads should be attractive, informational, and attention-getting; radio spots should be focused and of high audio quality. MEDIA BUYING One of the services provided by advertising agencies is the careful placement of finished advertisements in various media, with an eye toward maximizing the potential audience. The research search conducted by the agency will inform any media-buying decisions. An agency will be able to negotiate the terms of any contracts made for placing ads in any of various media. A full-service agency will deal confidently with television, radio, newspapers, and magazines. Some agencies are also branching into direct mail marketing and point of purchase incentives; some agencies have expanded into Internet advertising; and some agencies will also place an ad in the local yellow pages, or utilize outdoor advertising or one of the more creative avenues of incidental advertising, such as commercial signs on public buses or subways or on billboards. The media-buying staff of an advertising agency will draw on specific research done for the client, as well as on past experience with different media. Through this research and careful consideration, the agency will develop a media plan: this should be a fully realized plan of attack for getting out the clients message. Some factors to be considered in the development of the media plan include: Cost Per Thousand: This refers to the cost of an advertisement per one thousand potential customers it reaches. Media-buyers use this method to compare the various media avenues they must choose between. For example, television ads are considerably more expensive than newspaper ads, but they also reach many more people. Cost per thousand is a straightforward way to evaluate how to best spend advertising dollars: if a newspaper ad costs $100 and potentially reaches 2,000 customers, the cost per thousand is $50. If a television ad costs $1000 to produce and place in suitable television spots, and reaches a potential of 40,000 viewers, the cost per thousand is only $25. Reach: This term is used when discussing the scope of an advertisement. The reach of an ad is the number of households which can safely be assumed will be affected by the clients message. This is usually expressed as a percentage of total households. For example, if there are 1,000 households in a town, and 200 of those households receive the daily paper, the reach of a well-placed newspaper ad could be expressed as 20 percent: one-fifth of the households in the community can be expected to see the advertisement. Frequency: The frequency of a message refers to how often a household can be expected to be exposed to the clients message. Frequency differs widely between media, and even within the same medium. Newspapers, for example, are read less often on Saturdays, and by many more households (and more thoroughly) on Sundays. Fluctuation like this occurs in all media. Continuity: The media-buyer will also need to consider the timing of advertisements. Depending on the clients product, the ads can be evenly spread out over the course of a day (for radio or television advertisements), a week (for radio, television, or print advertisements), or a month (radio, television, print, or other media). Of course, seasonal realities influence the placement of advertisements as well. Clothing retailers may need to run more advertisements as a new school year approaches, or when new summer merchandise appears. Hardware stores may want to emphasize their wares in the weeks preceding the Christmas holiday. Grocery stores or pharmacies, however, might benefit from more evenly distributed advertising, such as weekly advertisements that emphasize the year-round needs of consumers. DAGMAR APPROACH HIERARCHY OF EFFECTS MODEL Russell H Colley (1961) prepared a report for the association of national advertisers titled defining Advertising Goals for Measured Advertising Results (DAGMAR). He developed a model for setting advertising objectives and measuring the results of an ad campaign. According to this model, communications effect is the logical basis for setting advertising objective and goals against which results should be measured. In Colleys words â€Å"Advertising job purely and simply is to communicate to a defined audience information and a frame of mind that stimulate action. Advertising succeed or fails depending on how well it communi-cate the desired information and attitude to the right time and at the right cost.† Awareness Comprehension Conviction Action There are no significant differences between Colleys proposed model and other important hierarchy of effects models. One important contribution of DAGMAR was its ability to clarify what continuous a good objective. According to Colley, the objective should have the following features: Stated in term of concrete and measurable communication tasks. Specify a target audience. Indicate a benchmark or standard starting point. Specify a time period for accomplishing the objective or objectives. Concrete measurable tasks The DAGMAR approach requires that the measurement procedure should also be specified. There must be a way to determine whether the intended ad message has been communicated properly to the target audience. If the ad message communicates that brand X is the best on Q attribute, then a questionnaire may include the request, â€Å"rank the following brands on best Q attribute.† The responses could be quantified to mean percentage of audience who rated brand X as the best on Q attribute. Target audience Another important feature of good objectives is the specification of a well-defined target audience. Though the primary target audience for a companys product or service is describe in situation analysis, yet it may need some refining. For example, user of a product may be further categorized as heavy, medium or light users. Benchmark and degree of change sought It is important to know the target audiences present status with respect to responses variable and then determine the degree of change desired by the advertising campaign. Assessment and criticism of DAGMAR approach The DAGMAR approach has had an enormous influence on the advertising planning process and objective setting. It has focused the advertisers attention on the important and value of using communication-based objectives as against sales based objectives to measure the impact and success of an ad campaign. The approach has not been totally accepted by everyone in the advertising field. A number of questions have been raised concerning its value as an advertising planning tool. Problems with responses hierarchy Sales as the advertising goal Practicality and costs Inhibits creativity Hierarchy-of-Effects Models Among advertising theories, the hierarchy-of-effects model is predominant. It shows clear steps of how advertising works, even though it has been criticized on some points, such as that people do not exactly follow these sequences. There are various versions of hierarchy-of-effects model. AIDA model is initiatory and simplest. Awareness à   Interest à   Desire à   Action AIDA model was presented by Elmo Lewis to explain how personal selling works. It shows a set of stair-step stages which describe the process leading a potential customer to purchase. The stages, Attention, Interest, Desire, and Action, form a linear hierarchy. It demonstrates that consumers must be aware of a products existence, be interested enough to pay attention to the products features/benefits, and have a desire to benefit from the products offerings. Action, the fourth stage, would come as a natural result of movement through the first three stages. Although this idea was rudimentary, it led to the later emerging field of consumer behavior research. Hierarchy-of-effects models have many variant models. DAGMAR (Defining Advertising Goals for Measured Advertising Results) model suggests similar but different steps. Awareness à   Comprehension à   Conviction à   Action DAGMAR model suggests that the ultimate objective of advertising must carry a consumer through four levels of understanding: from unawareness to Awareness—the consumer must first be aware of a brand or company; Comprehension—he or she must have a comprehension of what the product is and its benefits; Conviction—he or she must arrive at the mental disposition or conviction to buys the brand; Action—finally, he or she actually buy that product. Determining the Advertising Budget An important goal in determining the size of an advertising budget is to maximize profits. To achieve this goal, even approximately, is a very complex problem. Many procedures or rules have been adopted to provide what appears to be a reasonable answer from one point of view or another, but which, most people in the business would agree, are very crude at best. Hence, such approaches as â€Å"percentage-of-sales,† â€Å"all-you-can-afford,† â€Å"objective-and-task† and â€Å"competitive-parity,† are used because â€Å"scientific† approached either dont exist, or have not been able to prove their superiority. The difficulties of devising a scientific approach are fairly well know. The multitude of factors involved and the scarcity of relevant and accurate data are only two of many which could be listed. Marginal Analysis The theoretical underpinning of an advertising-budget decision is based on marginal analysis and is easily expressed. A firm would continue to add to the advertising budget as long as the incremental expenditures are exceeded by the marginal revenue they generate. Budgeting Decision Rules There are several decision rules on which many firms dray in making budget decisions. Four such rules will be described. The rules are basically justified by arguing that budgets based on them are unlikely to be far from the actual optimal budget if a marginal analysis could be performed. In some cases, the rules are used in combination, the net budget being a compromise among several. * Percentage of Sales One rule of thumb used in setting advertising budgets is the percentage of sales. Past sales or a forecast of future sales can be used as the base. A brand may have devoted 5% of its budget to advertising in the past. Thus, if the plan calls for doing $40 million worth of business next year, a $2 million advertising budget might be proposed. A similar decision could be based upon market share. For example, a brand could allocate $1 million for every share point it holds. The percentage-of-sales guide is the most common approach to setting advertising budgets. If a firm or brand has been successfully over several years using the percentage-of-sales approach, it might be assumed that the decision rule yielded budgets reasonably close to the optimal, so there is little incentive to change to another approach in setting budgets. The rule does tend to make explicit the marketing-mix decision, the allocation of the budget to the various elements of the marketing program. Furthermore, it provides comfort to a prudent financial executive who likes to know that her or his firm can afford the advertising. Finally, if competitors also use such a rule, it leads to a certain stability of advertising within the industry, which may be useful. If there is a ceiling on the size of the market, it is wise to avoid precipitating a war over advertising expenditure. * All You Can Afford Firms with limited resources may decide to spend all that they can reasonably allocate to advertising after other unavoidable expenditures have been allocated. This rule usually ensures that they are not advertising too heavily, that advertising moneys are not being wasted. It thus does have some logic. Of course, if the value of more advertising could be demonstrated, extra money could usually be raised, so the limitation may be somewhat artificial. * Competitive Parity Another guide is to adjust the advertising budge so that it is comparable to those of competitors. The logic is that the collective minds of the firms in the industry will probably generate advertising budgets that are somewhat close to the optimal. Everyone could not be too far from the optimal. Furthermore, any departure from the industry norms could precipitate a spending war. * Objective and Task Objective and task, more an approach to budgeting than a simple decision rule, is used by two-thirds of the largest advertisers. An advertising objective is first established in specific terms. For example, a firm may decide to attempt to increase the awareness of its brand in a certain population segment to 50 percent. The tasks that are requited to accomplish this objective are then detailed. They might involve the development of a particular advertising campaign exposing the relevant audience an average of the five times. The cost of obtaining these exposures then becomes the advertising budget. This approach assumes that there is a causal flow from advertising to sales. In effect, it represents an effort to introduce intervening variables such as awareness or attitude, which will presumable be indicators of future sales as well as immediate sales. Steps: 1. Task Definition: The objective of the advertising programme, are to be defined. The objectives may be to Close an immediate sale Increase sales Create awareness Building company goodwill and corporate image. 2. Determining the type of strategy, media, and amount of exposu